(a) Relative excess weight of liver. DON-induced dysbiosis of intestinal flora, characterized by recovering the balance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes to the normal level and reducing the abundance of the potentially harmful bacterium and the excessive caused by DON. Taken collectively, DON-degrading strain YB9 might be used as potential probiotic additive for improving food and feed security and modulating the intestinal microbial flora of humans and animals. YB9, intestinal microbial flora 1. Intro Mycotoxins are the harmful secondary metabolites of fungi and often contaminate agricultural commodities and cause severe safety issues to humans and animals because of the high occurrence incidence globally [1,2]. Deoxynivalenol (DON), notorious as vomitoxin, is one AZD5597 of the most common trichothecene mycotoxins and is frequently recognized in agricultural commodities with high concentrations [3]. DON is definitely produced primarily by some varieties and DON in cereals can directly or indirectly present severe health risks to both humans and animals through the food chain and lead to tremendous economic deficits worldwide. The toxicity of DON primarily depends on its epoxide group, and it can bind with ribosomal subunit to impair eukaryotic protein synthesis and consequently cause serious damage to human being and animal organs [4,5]. It has been reported that DON usage at high acute doses resulted in a series of diseases, such as emesis, nausea, diarrhea, and food refusal. Long exposure of DON causes reduced growth and causes negative effects on AZD5597 the liver, spleen, kidneys, intestine, gastrointestinal tract, and so on [6,7,8,9]. The hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and immunotoxicity of DON were widely investigated in recent years [10,11]. DON exposure improved the relative excess weight of liver and caused up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF- and IL-1 as well as the event of slight fibrosis and piecemeal necrosis in the liver [11,12,13]. In regard to kidneys, DON improved the creatinine (Cr) level of serum, which is definitely one main indication for evaluating renal function [14,15]. In addition, it was found that the immune system was sensitive to DON and DON indigestion decreased the immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM levels of serum, impaired cell-mediated and humoral immunity, and improved susceptibility to infectious diseases [16,17,18]. Diet DON with high doses caused apoptosis and necrosis of T-cells, B-cells, and leukocytes, which would suppress innate immune functions [19,20]. The atrophy of spleen was also observed after DON supplementation in chicken diet programs [21]. The homeostasis of intestinal microflora in animals has also been reported AZD5597 to be affected due to DON supplementation in diet programs [11,22]. DON administration decreased the diversity and richness of gut microbiota and improved the large quantity of and and [14]. Many methods have been developed to GLI1 remove DON and among them, biodetoxification of DON by using microorganisms showed great potential due to low cost, AZD5597 easy operation, and becoming environmentally-friendly [23,24,25]. For example, it was found that a human population of microbes from agricultural dirt completely transformed DON into de-epoxy DON after 60 h incubation. Furthermore, this tradition was found to consist of at least six bacterial genera, mainly including [26]. Single microbe was also used to remove DON and it has been reported that a Gram-negative bacterial strain A47 encoded DON de-epoxidizing gene and showed de-epoxidation activity [27]. However, the detoxification efficiency of some microbes is limited. In addition, there were few reports about the microbial applications for DON detoxification in feed or grain [28]. In order to obtain more high-efficient DON-removal bacteria for application in feed or grain, in this study, we isolated a strain YB9 from moldy ground. It was found that YB9 was able to efficiently remove DON by degradation and YB9. (a) The growth of YB9 on LB plates made up of AZD5597 1 mg/L DON. (b) Morphology and Gram-staining of YB9 observed under a microscope. (c) Phylogenetic tree of.
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